Introduction to the Acts of the Apostles

By Brett Scollard

The Book of Acts tells us of the dramatic and radical change which took place in the attitudes and actions of the disciples. At the end of the gospels, these same disciples were afraid and in hiding. They were doubtful and denying and despairing of any hope. But something changed. They went on to stand before priests and princes and kings, boldly asserting the fact of the resurrection of Christ. Acts fills in the gap between the Gospels and the Epistles. - John Stevenson

Introduction

The Acts of the Apostles is the fifth book of the New Testament. It provides the much-needed link between the Gospels and the epistles. It provides a glimpse into the function of early Christian communities. One of the prominent features of the book is the sovereignty of God in history. The activity of the Holy Spirit throughout the book demonstrates this high view of sovereignty.

Author

Luke-Acts Relationship

Just reading the introductions to both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles, a question regarding the relationship between these two accounts immediately arises. Theophilus is the recipient in both Acts and Luke. In Acts, mention is made of the "first account" that the author composed. This first account, according to Acts, contained "all that Jesus began to do and teach until the day he was taken up into heaven" (Acts 1:1-2) which is the exact content of Luke. Udo Schnelle digs deeper into the text and notes that, "the extensive linguistic and theological agreements and cross-references between the Gospel of Luke and the Acts indicate that both works derive from the same author."1 The vast majority of scholars now agree that Luke and Acts are the work of a single person.

External Evidence

The early church accepted Luke as the author, and in a widespread manner. It was not until the end of the eighteenth century that his authorship came into question. Irenæus quotes many times from Acts in his work titled Against Heresies, and he attributes these as Luke's words.2 Tertullian also, in his work On Fasting, argues from accounts in Acts 3:1 and Acts 10:9-10 and refers to them as the "commentary of Luke." Clement clearly attributes Acts to Luke when he writes in Stromata, "as Luke in the Acts of the Apostles relates that Paul said, 'Men of Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious.'"3 That Luke was the author of Acts was something that Origen stated in his homilies on Genesis to be a truth that the whole world held. The tradition of Lucan authorship for Acts is very strong and would need considerable evidence to overturn.

Internal Evidence

Based on a single author being responsible for both Luke and Acts, it appears from Luke 1:3 that the author is not one of the disciples or a firsthand writer of events in Luke. Yet, one of the most obvious indications of authorship when looking at the internal evidence is the existence of what are called the "we" passages. These are the points in Acts where the author speaks in the first person plural and thus includes himself in the story. While not being a disciple, he is a firsthand writer of some of the events in Acts, namely Acts 16:8-17; 20:5-15; 21:1-18; 27:1-28:16. In Acts 20:4 there is a list of some of the companions that traveled with Paul; Sopater, Aristarchus, Secundus, Gaius, Timothy, Tychicus, and Trophimus. Silas, who had accompanied Paul during most of the second missionary journey, can also be added to this list (Acts 16:19). Knowing that the author accompanied Paul to Rome, and knowing that Paul wrote a few of his epistles from there, the captivity epistles can be referenced to provide another list of companions; hence, Tychicus (Ephesians 6:21), Timothy (Philippians 1:1), Epaphroditus (Philippians 4:18), Onesimus, Aristarchus, Mark, Justus, Epaphras, Luke, and Demas (Colossians 4:9-15). The companions from the captivity epistles that are not found in the "we" passages of Acts are Epaphroditus, Onesimus, Mark, Justus, Epaphras, Luke, and Demas. The author's use of good literary Greek in the Gospel of Luke indicates he is educated. This fits very well with Luke the physician. Thus the tradition of Luke as author is at least compatible with the internal evidence, and at best, it is probable. Edgar J. Goodspeed sums it up well:

But suppose we abandon the effort to identify the author, and content ourselves with describing him in terms of his own writing. He was a Greek, a companion of Paul on his journeys, 16:11, 15, etc.; with him in Palestine, 21:17, 18; with him on his voyage to Rome, 27:1; 28:14; who late in life was moved to write the story of Christian beginnings. Why should we feel obliged, or even justified, in seeking some other name for this adventurous man than that of Paul's dear doctor, Luke?4

Purpose

Assuming common authorship between the Gospel of Luke and Acts, Luke 1:1-4 clearly spells out the purpose. His purpose was to provide an orderly account to Theophilus so that he would know the exact truth of what he learned. The first account to Theophilus (from Acts 1:2) concerned all that Jesus started to do and teach until His ascension. This fits well with the content of Luke. Acts, then, picks up where Luke left off. In verses two and three of Acts chapter one the author says that Jesus gave orders to the apostles. Verses 4-8 show, at least in part, these orders spoken of in verse two. It is a fair inference, then, that the author intends Acts to be an orderly account to Theophilus of all Jesus continued to do and teach through the apostles.

The main purpose as stated above may be accurate, but it is too broad to explain the choice of content. Some have suggested that Acts was a defense brief for Paul's trial. This is attractive because it would help answer why the author focuses so much on Paul. However, it seems unlikely since the author spends an almost equal amount of time on Peter who has nothing to do with Paul's trial. This would also not explain the first account that was written (Luke), especially since Theophilus is apparently already familiar with Christianity (Luke 1:4).

The author constantly presents the Roman officials in a positive light; thus, some suggest this work to be an apology. While this is possible, it too seems unlikely. Even a brief survey of the apologies of Justin Martyr reveals a vastly different approach. Justin gives accusation after accusation, systematically refuting each one. In Acts, there is neither accusation nor defense, except with the Jews. Thus, while an apology is still possible, it would have to be a very subtle purpose.

The gospel of the Spirit is another suggestion. Some have even stated that Acts would better be titled The Acts of the Spirit. The work of the Spirit is a theme that flows through the book, but it is a stretch to call this a purpose since it has little explanatory power.

Still others maintain Acts as a theological document. Undoubtedly there is some theology in Acts, and there may even have been some theological motivation in the selection of material. Luke may have chosen his material to show most clearly the fulfillment of the words of Christ in chapter one. Moving from Peter, as an apostle to the Jews, to Paul, as the apostle to the Gentiles, demonstrates the spreading of the gospel from the Jews to the Gentiles. Luke captured the geographic spread mentioned in Acts 1:8 in his selection of missionary journeys. Much of the focus on the Spirit seems to be another fulfillment of the words of Christ in Acts 1:8. Hence, there does seem to be some merit to there being a theological purpose to Acts. Nonetheless, whatever sub-purposes there may be are hard to identify. Any conclusion regarding these sub-purposes is tentative at best.

Structure

One of the orders given to the apostles is that they will be His (Christ's) witnesses in Jerusalem, Judea, Samaria, and to the ends of the earth (Acts 1:8). Acts follows this general format starting in Jerusalem (Acts 1-7) then spreading into the larger portions of Judea and Samaria (Acts 8, 10) and then to the ends of the earth (Acts 13-28). Luke reveals this structure more acutely by dividing Acts almost equally between Peter as the apostle to the Jews (Acts 1-12) and Paul as the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 13-28).

Date

The date for the book of Acts ranges from the early 60's to the second century A.D. Two things make for this wide range of dates. First is the data that there is to work with. Vague or unknown references make dating difficult. The second is the inherent bias of the scholar. The raw data is what it is; however, minimizing bias will beget a better date. A proper methodology relies on objective elements as much as possible, and is consistent in its application.

Methodology

The nature of dating is a bit complicated; and there appear to be four categories of dating methods. The first method is direct reference to independent events. The second is inferred reference to independent events. The third is direct reference to dependent events. Finally, the fourth method is inferred reference to dependent events. Furthermore, within each of these categories, there are degrees of confidence assigned to the event. If one has to derive the knowledge of an event from outside sources, the event is inferred, but a reference is said to be direct if the event is explicit in the text. Additionally, an event is independent if its date is well established and dependent if the date of the event depends in turn for its date upon some other factors. Thus, the fall of Jerusalem would be an inferred, independent event. The fall of Jerusalem has a fixed date at A.D. 70. However, it is not specifically mentioned in the text of Acts, so one must infer either that it happened but was left out or that it had not yet happened at the time of writing. The explanation that takes preference depends on the degree of confidence in each explanation. The Roman loss of Germania would also be an inferred, independent event. However, given the subject matter of the book of Acts, this particular event would have a very low probability of being included in the text. Consequently, deriving a date for Acts from such an event would be of no use.

The nature of all direct references is that they provide floors for dating. Thus, the death of Herod and the beginning of the rule of Festus provide a low-end date for the book. Inferred references can act either as a floor or as a ceiling. A proper method will establish the direction and degree of influence in these relationships. The next few sections work out this methodology.

The Direct Evidences

The direct references have the greatest strength providing the event is independent. The end of the book will provide us the most accurate floor since the flow of events is chronological. After Festus replaces Felix, and after Paul presents his case before Festus and King Agrippa, they send him to Rome. When he finally arrives in Rome he stays two full years and preaches unhindered (Acts 28:30-31). This series of events brings the low side of the date up to about A.D. 62.

Relationship to Second-Century Works

Some have made mention of the fact that Theudas is mentioned in Acts 5:36 and in Josephus' Antiquities and thus argue that Luke made use of Antiquities.5 If this is the case, then Acts could not be dated any earlier than ca. A.D. 94. The main problem with this inference is that Josephus places Theudas around A.D. 44 (when Fadus was procurator) and Luke places him during or before the time of Augustus (63 B.C.-A.D. 14). Either each account refers to a different person, or at least one of the accounts is wrong. The benefit of the doubt does not lie with the critic, but belongs properly with the work of antiquity. Thus it seems best, until more evidence reveals a true conflict, to maintain that there were two different people named Theudas. If Luke used Antiquities as a source for information on Theudas, it is strange that he would then place Theudas in a completely different period than Josephus did.

Other scholars argue that there are strong parallels found between the book of Acts and 1 Clement. As with Antiquities, there is no direction of influence established between Acts and 1 Clement. Without showing that Acts influenced 1 Clement, or vice versa, this relationship is worthless as a dating tool.

Goodspeed lists fifteen reasons to date Luke-Acts around A.D. 90.6 The majority of Goodspeed's reasons try to find similarities with second-century thinking. At first glance, this is quite attractive, yet when considered more closely, its strength fades. Any new movement or emphasis must have a beginning. That second century writers reflect the same emphasis that Luke had in his writings does not necessarily mean that the author composed Acts at a late period. This would be akin to insisting that the writing of Parmenides (451-449 B.C.) be placed around 360 B.C. After all, the writings of Parmenides show great similarity to the concepts found in platonic thought. However, the fact is that Plato used and popularized the distinctions between reason and sense that he first found in Parmenides' work.

The same holds true with many of the evidences put forth by Goodspeed. The second century emphasis on the Spirit, and on church organization, may only reveal the emphasis they first saw in Acts. Without establishing both degree and direction of influence, such similarities are useless for dating. When taking into account the length of the books, Acts actually ranks fourth in frequency of references to the Spirit.7 Ahead of it are Galatians, Ephesians, and Jude. Without denying Pauline authorship, there are at least two examples of earlier works having a greater emphasis on the Spirit than is seen in Acts. It seems, then, that Acts is very much at home in the middle of the first century. Without this apparent anachronism, Goodspeed's case for a late date loses all its strength.

Histories

Some claim that there must be a long period between the events of Acts and the writing of Acts. However, this is merely conjecture. If this were the case, one would expect to find no account of the Vietnam War, or a biography of Mao Tse Tung, and certainly no running record of the Iraq War. This is not to say that it is impossible to write an account long after the events described. The point is simply that one cannot lay claim to an account being late or early merely on the basis that it is an account. However, there may be markers in the account that indicate nearness to or distance from the period in question.

Marks of the First Century

What the author of Acts chose to include in his writing can be an indication of when the work was written. There were many issues that confronted the early Christian church and Luke's selection may reveal what was on his mind. Luke gives space to the Jew-Gentile controversy when, by all accounts, this was an issue only in the first century. The author also gives dietary issues space. This, too, was a concern only for the church in the first century.

Another indication of early composition is the positive view of the Roman government maintained throughout the book. There is never anything negative said about the Roman government, which would be strange if the church was going or had gone through the persecutions of Nero or Domitian. Some suggest that Acts was designed to be a defense brief to Paul's trial, and if this was the case then the positive view of Rome makes sense. It is unlikely, however, that this was the purpose of Acts (see discussion on Purpose). Yet, even if this were its design, it would have to have been composed before Paul's death, which indicates an early composition.

When the Jewish zealots captured Masada in A.D. 66, Judaism ceased to be a legal religion. This was the beginning of the first Jewish revolt. The author of Acts, though, indicates that Judaism was a legal religion. Carson, Moo, and Morris argue that this indicates a composition before A.D. 66.8 Given that Acts is a history from the first century, it is not strange to find accounts that were a concern only in the first century. Any good historian would want to record the facts as accurately as possible. It would be inaccurate to record Judaism as an illegal religion if in fact it was legal during the period described. Many of the points above, by themselves, cannot argue against a late date for Acts.

Arguments from Silence

Luke omitted several significant events from the book of Acts. He does not mention the fall of Jerusalem, nor does he mention the deaths of Paul and Peter. He does not mention the persecutions under Nero and Domitian. These are just a few of the events that the author excludes from Acts. One must question why they are not included.

Acts repeatedly shows the persecutions that the church had to endure as it spread. It was through the persecutions that the church first spread (Acts 8:1). Persecutions constantly drove Paul out of city after city. Thus, discussion in Acts of the Domitian persecutions is likely. A date before the mid nineties A.D. is thus warranted.

The author of Acts goes to great length to show the relationship between Judaism and Christianity. The fall of Jerusalem may have also had some very strong theological implications to Christians. Acts provides an orderly account of Christianity (or all that Christ continued to do and say). Given its strong tie to Judaism, the fall of Jerusalem has a high probability of being included. This inferred event would bring the date ceiling down to A.D. 70.

As mentioned earlier, the author of Acts is not afraid to mention the persecutions that the church endured. Moreover, the persecutions of Nero are now approaching the period of events from the end of Acts. Thus distance from the story is no longer a reason for not mentioning these persecutions. This event would bring the ceiling down even further to around A.D. 64-65.

As mentioned earlier the marks of the first century could not be used to argue against a later date. However, this is only partially true. Some major events were not included in Acts. Moreover, since the author gives space to such minor events as the Jew-Gentile controversy and dietary issues, it is highly probable that he would include the major events, if he knew of them. Thus, the fact that the author includes some minor events gives strength to the arguments from silence. All of this points to a date between A.D. 62 and 65.

Content

Luke begins Acts by giving a brief review of his first volume, then blends it into the introduction of the current volume. The final words of Christ before His ascension give glimpses of what is to come. Jesus promises the Holy Spirit, and tells the disciples to be witnesses in Jerusalem, Judea, Samaria, and to the ends of the earth. The structure of the book seems tied to Christ's words of the disciple's witness as it begins in Jerusalem, then moves to Judea and Samaria, and finally to the ends of the earth with the apostle Paul. After His final orders, Christ ascends into heaven, and the disciples return to Jerusalem.

Peter suggests they cast lots to fill the position of Judas as an apostle; the lot falls to Matthias. God pours the Spirit upon the disciples on the day of Pentecost, and they speak in tongues. Peter defends to the skeptics this working of the Spirit, and claims it as a fulfillment of the prophecy in Joel. At his words, many (about 3,000) repent. The believers have all things in common for the good of one another.

Peter, on his way to the temple, heals a lame man. This occasion prompts another sermon from Peter. Greatly disturbed by the teaching of Peter, the priests, the captain of the temple guard, and the Sadducees arrest Peter and John. The authorities command Peter and John not to teach any further in Jesus' name, and then release them.

Barnabas sells his field and gives the profits to the apostles for the common good. Ananias and Saphiara also sell some property and give part of the profit to the apostles, but deceit regarding the full amount results in their death. The apostles do more miracles.

The priests have the apostles arrested again. After a miraculous escape, the apostles keep teaching as before. The priests find them teaching again, but fear the people so they bring them without violence before the council. During the verbal exchange, many of the authorities desire to kill the apostles. Gamaliel's council to let them be is heeded. The apostles are then beaten and released.

Problems arise with the growing number of followers, so the apostles delegate to some the task of serving tables. Unable to contend with Stephen's wisdom, some Jews bring him before the Sanhedrin on false charges. In his defense, Stephen accuses the leaders of resisting the movement of the Holy Spirit as the Israelites of the past resisted all the prophets of God. Stephen is then stoned. A great persecution begins from this event, which drives the Christians into the entire world.

When a report comes of faith in Samaria, Peter and John go there and another mini-pentecost occurs. Peter rebukes Simon the magician for attempting to buy the power of the Spirit. Philip witnesses to an Ethiopian who subsequently believes in Christ. Philip then baptizes him.

Saul gets permission from the priests to continue the persecutions in Damascus. On his way, the Lord appears to him and gives him instructions. God instructs Ananias to heal Saul. Saul then begins to preach Christ. Paul escapes from Damascus, journeys to Jerusalem, and then escapes once more to Caesarea. Peter travels through Lydda and Joppa and performs many miracles.

A man named Cornelius from Caesarea receives a vision from God and sends for Peter. Peter also receives a vision and travels from Joppa to Cornelius' house. Peter begins to preach Christ. Cornelius and his house believe, and another mini-pentecost experience occurs. Upon returning to Jerusalem, Peter defends his actions regarding fellowshiping with the uncircumcised.

In Antioch, the salvation of a number of Greeks prompts the church in Jerusalem to send Barnabas. He encourages them, then brings Paul. The two stay and preach there for about one year. On news of a famine, Paul and Barnabas go to Judea with relief.

Herod captures and kills James, then captures Peter intending to do the same. However, an angel rescues Peter from the jail. Herod travels to Caesarea where he subsequently dies for not giving God the glory.

The church of Antioch sets apart Paul and Barnabas and sends them on their first missionary journey. They travel through Seleucia to Salamis where Paul strikes blind an antagonist; many believe. They then go through Paphos to Perga and to Pisidian Antioch where they preach in the synagogues for two weeks. Many believe, but some Jews drive them out of the city. They carry on to Iconium where many of both Jews and Greeks believe. They stay a good while until they uncover a plot to kill them. They then travel to Lystra where Paul is stoned, and then journey on to Derbe. After Derbe they double back, taking the same route to the sea and visiting the new churches along the way. The set sail from Attalia back to Antioch.

Back in Antioch, a dispute arises over the necessity of circumcision for salvation. From this dispute, the Jerusalem council convenes. They side with Paul and Barnabas and send Judas and Silas back to Antioch with Paul and Barnabas to relay the news. After some time Paul and Barnabas decide to visit the church plants again but split over a disagreement regarding John Mark.

Paul and Silas then begin the second missionary journey. They travel to Derbe, pick up Timothy, and deliver the council decrees to each city. They are prevented from going into Asia or Bithynia, so they go to Troas and then to Philippi via Samothrace, and Neapolis. In Philippi, Paul casts a demon out of a slave girl. Robbed of their fortune, her masters have Paul and Silas thrown into jail. An earthquake provides a possible escape but begets the salvation of a jailer instead. Eventually, Paul and Silas are set free. They travel on to Apollonia and Thessalonica and make a great many converts. Driven out by the Jews again, Paul and Silas preach Christ in Berea until driven out once more. Paul lands in Athens and debates with the philosophers on Mars Hill while waiting for Silas and Timothy. Then he goes to Corinth and works as a tent-maker while continuing his preaching. Timothy and Silas join him and in due time they all three head to Ephesus. Paul leaves Silas and Timothy in Ephesus and journeys to Caesarea, Antioch, and then into the regions of Galatia and Phrygia.

Paul, arriving back in Ephesus, makes some converts from John the baptist's disciples and there is another mini-pentecost. Paul stays many months and works many miracles. Demetrius the silversmith gets the entire city in an uproar. Paul makes a series of further visits before heading to Jerusalem. After arriving back in Jerusalem, Paul is welcomed by the brethren, and encouraged to take part in a purification rite at the temple. A riot breaks out at the temple due to the erroneous charge that Paul brought Gentiles into the temple. Paul is arrested/rescued by a Roman commander and then moved to Caesarea because of a plot to kill him. Five days later the high priest, along with some elders, comes down to bring charges against Paul to which he gives his defense. Paul stays in Caesarea until Festus replaces Felix. In a matter of days, the Jews again bring charges against Paul to Festus. After Festus asks Paul to go to Jerusalem, Paul appeals to Caesar. After also presenting his case to King Agrippa, Paul eventually goes to Rome. In route to Rome, a shipwreck leaves them stranded for three months on the island of Malta. At the end of three months they set sail again and arrive in Rome where Paul spends two years preaching Christ freely.

Footnotes

1. Udo Schnelle, The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings, trans. M. Eugene Boring (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1998), p. 259.
2. Irenæus, "3.1"in Against Heresies; available from http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/anf01/htm/TOC.htm; accessed 22 September 2004.
3. Clement of Alexandria, "5.12" in Stromata; available from http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-02/TOC.htm; accessed 24 September 2004.
4. Edgar J. Goodspeed, "The Work of Luke" in An Introduction to the New Testament; available from http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/goodspeed/; accessed 8 September 2004.
5. Flavius Josephus, "20.97" in Antiquities of the Jews (ed. William Whiston, A.M.); available from http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=J.+AJ+toc; accessed 16 September 2004.
6. Goodspeed, "Luke."
7. Based on Greek word count for each of the NT books.
8. D.A. Carson, et al, An Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Mi.: Zondervan, 1992), p 194.